role of melatonin in pregnancy

role of melatonin in pregnancy

Sleep also plays a major role in memory, learning, appetite, mood, and decision-making – all important when preparing to welcome a newborn baby into your home. While the effects of melatonin can be beneficial for sleep cycles, it has many side effects that influence various body systems. Circadian rhythm. 53. It also plays a role … During the first and second trimester, the nighttime peak of melatonin decreases. Sometimes referred to as the "sleep hormone," melatonin plays an instrumental role in keeping your sleep-wake cycles on track. The National Sleep Foundation’s 2014 Sleep in the Modern Family poll found that three in four teenagers, and 96% of teenagers between the ages of 15 and 17, bring some kind of technology into the bedroom. Melatonin works in our bodies, but do melatonin supplements work? Melatonin is a hormone made by the pineal gland. Melatonin is detected in the human follicular fluids and it is a scavenger of these potent free radicals. It helps regulate other hormones and maintains the body's circadian rhythm. ... including basic and translational science, embryology, ART, infertility, male reproduction, periconception and pregnancy, reproductive health and the social implications of fertility care. Gestational Diabetes: Diabetes that starts during pregnancy. The pineal gland is responsible for producing melatonin, also known as the “hormone of sleep” or the “hormone of darkness.” Melatonin helps improve sleep quality and increase sleep duration, but it appears that there are more potent sleep medications. The growing use of electronic devices for school, entertainment, and social media has many benefits. Melatonin is a neuroendocrine hormone secreted nightly by pineal gland and regulates biological rhythms. For the mother, those sleepless nights end up leading to fatigue and daytime sleepiness. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge concerning the role of melatonin in reducing complications during human pregnancy and in the perinatal period. Both melatonin and cortisol play a role in synchronizing the circadian rhythms in peripheral tissues to the 24-h pattern and likely provide feedback to the SCN . Pandi-Perumal, S. R. et al. Focus is given to melatonin effect on the female reproductive system, its participation in the aging process, and formation of pathological menopause. According to the Mayo Clinic, the hormone melatonin plays a role in your natural sleep-wake cycle. The present study investigated the role of melatonin on energy metabolism and in pancreatic function and remodeling during pregnancy and early lactation in rats. Insomnia during the early and late stages of pregnancy is common and does not usually mean anything is wrong. During normal pregnancy, maternal melatonin level increases progressively until term and is highly transferred to the fetus, with an important role in brain formation and differentiation. The body produces melatonin just after it gets dark, peaking in the early hours of the morning and reducing during daylight hours. Melatonin is a natural hormone that plays a role in your sleep-wake cycle. It is produced from a pathway that includes both tryptophan and serotonin. The body produces melatonin just after it gets dark, peaking in the early hours of the morning and reducing during daylight hours. As melatonin is thought to diffuse directly from the pinealocyte into adjacent capillaries, In a human trial, supplementation with CoQ10 led to higher fertilization rate and more high-quality embryos. As the sun goes down and darkness increases, the pineal gland begins to secrete melatonin, which usually happens after 9 p.m. In fact, melatonin levels fluctuate throughout a pregnancy (52, 53). The role of melatonin in pregnancy is emerging. ... and myo-inositol improves the pregnancy rate, although all published studies do not fully agree with these conclusions. This suggests a role for melatonin in human reproduction and in neonatal pathologies … Cushing's syndrome , due to an excess production of adrenocorticotropic hormone, can also lead to hyperpigmentation. Melatonin receptors are present throughout the developing fetus from the earliest stages. Natural levels of melatonin in the blood are highest at … Int J Mol Sci. It has been reported to be synthesised in the placenta and may have both receptor mediated and non-receptor mediated protective functions during pregnancy. It is essential for sodium conservation in the kidney, salivary glands, sweat glands, and colon. Melatonin supplementation during COS does not reduce the chance of clinical pregnancy and the number of oocytes retrieved, but we are uncertain whether there is benefit or no effect. When it is dark, your body produces more melatonin. The role of melatonin in the onset and progression of type 3 diabetes. Biol Reprod 39: 1093 - 1099 . Study on the role of melatonin in the pathogenesis and in treatment of depression will still be one of the important subjects for future depression research. Melatonin supplementation in IVF may lead to better pregnancy rates. Buffaloes are characterized by seasonal reproductive activity. Natural melatonin plays an important role in pregnancy. Avoid the dangerous side effects of melatonin, … Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid steroid hormone produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland. It has been used as a supplement for those who work irregular hours and by some recovering from jet lag. Testosterone is the primary sex hormone and anabolic steroid in males. Often referred to as the ‘sleep’ hormone, melatonin is central to your body’s sleep-wake cycle. Dubbed the “sleep hormone,” melatonin is formed in the brain’s pineal gland in response to falling light levels to prepare the body for sleep. Folic Acid: A vitamin that reduces the risk of certain birth defects when taken before and during pregnancy. Full guide to melatonin & pregnancy - find out can you take melatonin while pregnant and learn all about the melatonin-pregnancy relation. In fact, the digestive system produces 400 times more melatonin than the pineal gland. Therefore, it is recommended not to take melatonin supplements without the doctor’s advice. Melatonin’s Role in Fertility Studies have shown that having a healthy circadian rhythm is due in part to having adequate levels of melatonin in the body. The expression level of glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) gene is reduced in pinealectomized animals, which consequently results in glucose intolerance and insulin resistance. The Key Role of Myo-Inositol and Melatonin SalvatoreGiovanniVitale, 1 PaolaRossetti, 2 FrancescoCorrado, 1 AgneseMariaChiaraRapisarda, 3 SandroLaVignera, 4 ... to raise the fertilization rate, and myo-inositol improves the pregnancy rate, although all published studies do not fully agree with Melatonin, a pineal hormone that regulates circadian rhythms, has also been shown to exhibit unique oxygen scavenging abilities. Experts say that melatonin also helps you to get a good night sleep with its potent anti-stress factor ( 6 ). Melatonin plays an important role in our digestive system. BACKGROUND: Melatonin is an antioxidant with anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects. Conversely, when the eyes perceive sunlight, they tell the hypothalamus to withhold melatonin production. 7. Overview. According to these data, caffeine used during pregnancy delayed ossification; melatonin, a powerful antioxidant, was found to eliminate this effect. Does Melatonin Exert Its Effect on Ram Sperm Capacitation Through Nitric Oxide Synthase Regulation? 12,13 Loss of circadian rhythm eventually leads to MLT abnormalities in patients with cancer. During pregnancy, night-time concentrations of melatonin increase steadily after 24 weeks of gestation. In this review, we evaluate the complex interaction between the circadian clock and melatonin within the immune system and their roles in the circadian regulation and maintenance of normal pregnancy. The role of melatonin in the onset and progression of type 3 diabetes Alzheimers disease (AD) is defined by the excessive accumulation of toxic peptides, such as beta amyloid (A) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFT). Exogenous melatonin is normally made synthetically in a laboratory and, as a dietary supplement, is most often sold as a pill, capsule, chewable, or liquid. But avoid using sleeping pills or even sleep-inducing supplements, such as melatonin, during pregnancy, Lee said. Melatonin addition to formula feed. It promotes faster healing of surgical incisions and prevents formation of abdominal adhesions. For instance, during the pregnancy, maternal melatonin provides a chronobiotic signal for the fetus and also plays a role in the development and maintenance of the fetal adrenal function under conditions suitable for fetal life, an effect that may also involve … In animals, melatonin plays an important role in the regulation of sleep–wake cycles. At level of fetus, circadian rhythms of fetal heart rate and tachycardia are observed in twin pregnancy, showingapeakduringlighthours[ ],showingthatboththe Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland in the brain. Melatonin (sometimes called the "darkness hormone") is secreted by the pineal gland in the brain to help regulate our circadian rhythm. You can also purchase melatonin as a … The hormone is produced in the ovaries, the placenta (when a woman gets pregnant) and the adrenal glands. Finally, check with your doctor if you are considering taking a melatonin supplement—it’s highly touted for its role in regulating sleep cycles, but there are conflicting opinions (and not a lot of good clinical evidence) about how safe it is when you’re sleeping for two. Melatonin may be useful during pregnancy. 5. Hardeland R (2013) Melatonin and the theories of aging: a critical appraisal of melatonin's role in antiaging mechanisms. Interestingly, melatonin receptors have been identified in the developing nephron of human fetal kidneys ; however, an in vivo physiological role of these melatonin receptor pathways within the fetus remains elusive. Melatonin helps … The enzymes needed for endogenous synthesis of melatonin have been identified in the placenta, although the contribution to circulating maternal melatonin in normal pregnancy is unclear. Melatonin is widely regarded as safe for use, with mild side effects such as drowsiness, nausea, dizziness, and headaches. 2020;21(6):2093. Melatonin is a hormone made by the pineal gland. National Toxicology Program (NTP) – Headquartered at NIEHS, NTP is an interagency program known for expertise in conducting studies into the environmental origins of disease, including breast cancer. 14 MLT plays a crucial role in human physiology and pathology by acting as a cell protector in immunomodulation, antioxidant processes, and hematopoiesis. In photoperiodic nonhuman mammals the secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland plays a major role in regulating reproductive physiology; in humans these relationships are less clear. Protective Role of Melatonin. During the process of ovulation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced within the ovarian follicles, which may impair oocyte maturation. DDT exposure during pregnancy may alter certain genes leading to an increased chance of developing breast cancer in the daughters of those women. The scientific evidence supporting a role for melatonin in human pregnancy is summarized.” "Both melatonin and circadian rhythms impact reproduction, especially during pregnancy. Fetus: The stage of human development beyond 8 completed weeks after fertilization. That's a pea-sized gland found just above the middle of your brain.It helps your body know when it's time to sleep and wake up.. Levels drop with age. Many emerging studies addressed the recognition of the importance of maternal circadian rhythm on pregnancy … It’s also quite sensitive to external cues like sunrise and sunset. Melatonin is a neuroendocrine hormone which regulates circadian rhythm and is also an antioxidant. important factor during the pregnancy is photoperiod, and light exposition during night hours (inhibition of melatonin production) is able to modify the hours of labor in monkeys and rats [ , ]. He found that those taking melatonin were significantly less likely to die from COVID-19. Melatonin plays an important role in regulating circadian cycles and sleep wake rhythms and is a powerful antioxidant, it has chronobiotic functions and consequently is involved in several physiological activities. Pregnancy is a risk factor for deep venous thrombosis, and … Human melatonin production decreases as a person ages. It helps control your sleep cycle. Melatonin in and of itself is a powerful antioxidant. Melatonin has an important role in optimizing fertility and protecting egg quality. Various anecdotal sources state that it is contraindicated during pregnancy, but no … It is synthesized mainly by the pineal gland located in the brain. 55: 325-356. doi: 10.1111/jpi.12090. The third function of melatonin is to modulate the redox status, via scavenger activity or regulating the expression of antioxidant enzymes [ 35 ]. Human infants' melatonin levels become regular in about the third month after birth, with the highest levels measured between midnight and 8:00 am. Curr Pharm Des. Melatonin and schizophrenia. We anticipate that melatonin will increase uterine and umbilical blood … Melatonin is a hormone that plays a key role in body rhythms and jet lag. ... Melatonin is highly important in healthy fetal development as it plays an important role in brain formation. Melatonin created within the body is known as endogenous melatonin, but the hormone can also be produced externally. The enzymes needed for endogenous synthesis of melatonin have been identified in the placenta, although the contribution to circulating maternal melatonin in normal pregnancy is unclear. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a role in the development of diabetes, ... may be beneficial in providing your body with the tryptophan needed for melatonin production. Adding melatonin to myoinositol + folic acid is unlikely to cause a relevant change in … The production of MLT is strongly affected by physiological conditions; MLT levels are higher at night and lower at noon. "Most women are too afraid … A second function proposed for melatonin is a homeostatic role, regulating several aspects of fetal physiology such as the development and maintenance of fetal physiology or pregnancy. Seek advice from your healthcare provider before using any dietary supplement if you are pregnant, nursing, or considering the use of this product in a child under 18 years of age. However, previous studies have demonstrated that cotreatment improves these results compared with melatonin alone or myo-inositol alone. The article presents recent findings from a prospective study including N=40 … Melatonin has been shown to improve in vitro fertilization and offspring survival after bacterial infection, but its role in regulating maternal-fetal communication during early pregnancy has not been investigated. Melatonin is also crucial to female reproductive health as it plays a role in controlling the timing and release of female reproductive hormones. In male humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair. The mechanisms of the participation of melatonin in the regulation of metabolic processes and the key role of maternal melatonin in the formation of the circadian system of regulation in the fetus and in the protection of the genetic program of its morphofunctional development during pregnancy … Venous thromboembolism is the leading cause of maternal death in the United States. It is a hormone produced in our pineal glands; more is produced at night than during daylight, and it plays an essential role in regulating our circadian rhythms. A recent study published this month in the journal Reproductive Sciences showed the beneficial role of Melatonin for women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).. You’ve probably heard it over and over, but research continues to show that following five simple healthy lifestyle habits makes a significant difference in life expectancy for both women and men, and the more of them you have, the longer you are likely to live. Introduction Goats and sheep showed anorulatory and anestrus under normal variations of day length especially in … Natural melatonin leakage starts leaving out the dipeptide tryptophan, whereby serotonin thus an entrepreneur, and yet is footloose over against the melatonin receptors entering the pate, bullet-hole and unassociated areas in order to plagiarize benadryl and pregnancy third trimester manipulation the slumberland and funeral oration cycles. The melatonin rhythm changes throughout life with the first substantial change in nocturnal melatonin secretion being reportedly associated with puberty. Animal studies have supported a fetal neuroprotective role for melatonin when administered maternally. The Role of Melatonin . Melatonin is a natural hormone that is produced by the pineal gland (located in your brain). For example, melatonin supplementation can improve egg maturation during IVF treatments. Getting quality sleep during pregnancy is important for both mother and baby. Lack of sleep also impairs the body’s ability to properly regulate adrenaline, cortisol, and insulin, making conception very difficult. The results confirm that the absence of melatonin during pregnancy impairs glucose metabolism. The circadian rhythm is an internal 24-hour "clock" that plays a critical role in when we fall asleep and when we wake up. During pregnancy, melatonin in the blood passes through the placenta not only supporting its function and health, but also aiding in the creation of the fetal suprachiasmatic nucleus or SCN, where a human’s central circadian regulatory system in located. The role of melatonin in the onset and progression of type 3 diabetes 1Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Creative Biomedical Scientists at Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61469 South Korea 2Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, School of Clinical Sciences, Fac Prior to implantation in the uterus, this hormone is responsible for the thickening of the uterine wall.During this period, it is secreted by the ovaries. Yellon SM and Longo LD (1988) Effect of maternal pinealectomy and reverse photoperiod on the circadian melatonin rhythm in the sheep and fetus during the last trimester of pregnancy… It helps prepare your body for conception and pregnancy and regulates the monthly menstrual cycle. The purpose of this systematic review is to access the current state of knowledge concerning the role for melatonin in human pregnancy. Nitric oxide and its role during pregnancy: from ovulation to delivery. Maul H, Longo M, Saade GR, Garfield RE. Melatonin provides protection against cisplatin-induced ovarian damage and loss of fertility in mice. Melatonin receptors are present throughout the developing fetus from the earliest stages. The 2018 study of 486 pregnancies found that insomnia occurs after pregnancy … Using melatonin in treatment of schizophrenia can be traced back to 1920, when … Cherries come packed with melatonin, a powerful antioxidant hormone that helps in stimulating the cell growth while your belly stretches during pregnancy . Most women recognize that the foods they eat play a huge part in helping their child to grow in the uterus. In fact, the enzymes that synthesize melatonin are activated and depressed by … A pregnancy may end in a live birth, a spontaneous miscarriage, an induced abortion, or a stillbirth. In all species studied to date, pineal secretion is higher at night than during the day. The precise role of melatonin in human pregnancy is not clear. The role of melatonin is to normalize biological rhythm and adjust the timing across various critical biological processes. Abstract: Melatonin is an important neuroprotective factor and its receptors are expressed in the fetal brain. Review how to sleep best in pregnancy, including the role of hormones, possible solutions to sleep problems, and the best … Shows a synergistic effect of melatonin and oxytocin during pregnancy and childbirth. However, it has been reported that serum melatonin levels are higher during pregnancy than in nonpregnant women[ 63 ]. Potential adverse effects of antenatal melatonin as a treatment for intrauterine growth restriction: findings in pregnant sheep By Emilio Herrera Melatonin improves placental efficiency and birth weight and increases the placental expression of antioxidant enzymes in undernourished pregnancy It helps decide when a woman starts to menstruate, the frequency and length of menstrual cycles, as well as when a … 54. Melatonin helps flip the immune system’s “on switch” We now know that our white blood cells, the main player in the body’s immune function, have melatonin receptors.   Our circadian rhythms work best when we have regular sleep habits. Melatonin has, therefore, often been referred to as a ‘sleep hormone’; although it is not essential for human sleep, we sleep better during the time that melatonin is secreted. It is produced from a pathway that includes both tryptophan and serotonin. use of melatonin was very effective for improvement of reproductive parameters include fertility, pregnancy and twinning rate. Anestrus buffalo heifers and lactating buffaloes were used to study the effect of melatonin treatment on the resumption of ovarian activity during out-of-breeding season. Although well known as a ‘sleep hormone’ and often taken as a supplement to help improve sleep quality, it is also critical when trying to get pregnant. The nighttime serum concentration of melatonin shows an incremental change toward the end of pregnancy. 1989) but the potential role calcium may play in the secretion of melatonin is untested. A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. The Role of Protein During Pregnancy It is essential for expectant mothers to eat enough protein during pregnancy because it helps to maintain maternal health and develop a healthy fetus. The scientists have shown that chronic administration of melatonin at doses (10 mg/kg body weight/day) prevents mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum disruption, which play a critical role … Melanocyte-stimulating hormone levels are also raised during pregnancy and in women using birth control pills, which can cause hyperpigmentation of the skin. Preexisting sleep difficulties may worsen, and new ones may show up with each phase of pregnancy, introducing new challenges. Melatonin appears to be a factor in “turning on” the activity of T-cells, a special type of white blood cell, and enhancing the function of T-cell helper lymphocytes. Melatonin is a hormone produced by all mammals that plays a significant role in the regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms. Melatonin is well known for its role in the sleep-wake cycle but it is less well known as an effective antioxidant. Melatonin is released in response to darkness and is suppressed by light. This project will examine the effect of melatonin supplementation on uterine and umbilical blood flow, both of which play an important role in supplying oxygen and nutrients to the growing fetus. This increase may initially be associated with elevated sleepiness in the mother, often resulting in an increase in total sleep time and daytime napping . Melatonin and Pregnancy Most dietary supplements like melatonin have not been studied in pregnant women, during breastfeeding, or in children. So why do doctors still recommend against using melatonin during pregnancy? 5 And if you’re exposing yourself to lights from cell phones, computers, iPads, and Kindles before bedtime, your levels might also drop to an unhealthy level. Progesterone plays a role in maintaining pregnancy. 1 In humans, it is the main hormone synthesized and secreted by the pineal gland. Melatonin acts on … Melatonin is indeed natural. The role of melatonin in pregnancy is emerging. Darkness causes the body to produce more melatonin, which signals the body to prepare for sleep. It does this in part by nourishing a woman’s body with myo-inositol, folate, and melatonin. After the sun sets, the eyes perceive darkness and alert the hypothalamus to begin releasing melatonin, which promotes sleep. Moreover, twin pregnancies have been reported to yield higher nocturnal melatonin levels than singleton pregnancies[ 63 ]. In a review summarizes the mechanisms of synthesis of melatonin and its regulatory effect aimed at successful pregnancy and fetal development of functional systems. Melatonin is a natural hormone that is produced by the pineal gland (located in your brain). What supplements can you use for anxiety? That's a pea-sized gland found just above the middle of your brain.It helps your body know when it's time to sleep and wake up.. Melatonin is a multifaceted molecule with direct free radical scavenging and … Introduction. It also plays a role in reproductive health. It’s also available in a synthetic form as a supplement. A second function proposed for melatonin is a homeostatic role, regulating several aspects of fetal physiology such as the development and maintenance of fetal physiology or pregnancy. Miguel-Jiménez S, Carvajal-Serna M, Calvo S, et al. Melatonin plays an important role in how your body plays out its rhythms such as its sleep to wake cycles. Yellon SM and Longo LD (1988) Effect of maternal pinealectomy and reverse photoperiod on the circadian melatonin rhythm in the sheep and fetus during the last trimester of pregnancy. Underlined the importance of an individual approach to the appointment in childbirth medicines is a physiological antagonist of melatonin. Buffaloes of treated group were injected or implanted with melatonin (18 mg melatonin/50 kg body weight). Melatonin is a substance that your brain's pineal gland secretes, producing the effect of sleepiness. The ongoing studies on melatonin and its relation to pregnancy are yet to provide convincing evidence to demonstrate its role. A few things come into play but finding the right balance is the key to reducing anxiety levels. 2003;9(5):359-380. Are There Any Benefits Of Melatonin When Pregnant? In total, the average adolescent gets up to nine hours of screen time per day.. Melatonin is a highly effective direct free-radical scavenger, indirect antioxidant, and cytoprotective agent in human pregnancy and it appears to be essential for successful pregnancy. 1 In humans, it is the main hormone synthesized and secreted by the pineal gland. Melatonin is a member of the class of acetamides that is acetamide in which one of the hydrogens attached to the nitrogen atom is replaced by a 2-(5-methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)ethyl group. Melatonin displays high lipid and water solubility, which allows it to diffuse easily through most cell membranes, including the blood-brain barrier. In the current study, the prolonged light exposure at night on the function of pineal gland, melatonin production, pro-inflammatory response and progress of pregnancy in pregnant rats were investigated. Studies have shown that women with low melatonin and serotonin levels have a shorter luteal phase (time between ovulation and menstruation) and consequently have a lower chance of conceiving. The discovery of melatonin by Lerner [] and colleagues in 1958 heralded a new field of research in reproductive physiology.Ever since Huebner [] reported that a tumor of the human pineal gland altered pubertal development (almost 70 yr before the identification of melatonin), it was surmised that some factor of pineal origin may be capable of influencing reproductive function. Pregnancy, also known as gestation, is the time during which one or more offspring develops inside a woman. The scientists have shown that chronic administration of melatonin at doses (10 mg/kg body weight/day) prevents mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum disruption, which play a critical role … Besides, changes in angiotensin receptor expression observed in response to a caffeine and melatonin exposure result from high dose and join effect. 46,47. Hence, the role of circadian rhythm modulators such as melatonin offers intriguing opportunities for therapy. It is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland in humans. Posted By Braverman IVF & Reproductive Immunology || 27-Feb-2018. Melatonin is a hormone naturally produced in your brain. This nocturnal rise in melatonin secretion plays an important role in normal sleep." Melatonin is a neuroendocrine hormone which regulates circadian rhythm and is also an antioxidant. In the presented article, we cover the issues concerning physiology of secretion of pineal hormone melatonin and its role in the vital processes of a body. The third function of melatonin is to modulate the redox status, via scavenger activity or regulating the expression of antioxidant enzymes [35]. Key words : Iraqi goats, anestrous, pregnancy, melatonin. Also, melatonin plays a role … Melatonin acts on … The Key Role of Myo-Inositol and Melatonin. Melatonin, an efficient antioxidant agent, diffuses through biological membranes easily and exerts pleiotropic actions on every cell and appears to be essential for successful gestation. Melatonin was first isolated from the bovine pineal gland in 1958. During pregnancy, night-time concentrations of melatonin increase steadily after 24 weeks of gestation. Melatonin's main job in the body is to regulate night and day cycles or sleep-wake cycles. An example of a pregnancy complication is preterm labor. J. Pineal Res. Prog Neurobiol 85, … More. Melatonin has recently become a popular supplement for people who want to sleep better. The role of melatonin in night-time breast milk, and its influence on the other components of breast milk, urgently requires further investigation, including as to the role of the melatonergic pathways in the regulation of the infant gut, and therefore on the developing gut-brain axis and immune system.

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